Fig. 1

Location of dead female northern spotted owl (red star) on an established territory (blue dashed line) in Humboldt County, California in proximity to known marijuana growing operations (red polygons). An illegal clandestine MGO eliminated in 2015 is shown as a red triangle. Yellow-hatched areas are private inholdings in a national forest. Black dots are roost and nest sites used by northern spotted owls and blue dots are nocturnal detections of spotted owls from surveys conducted on this territory from 1985 to 2017. Aerial views of MGOs can be seen in [3, 41]